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Confidentiality

While sometimes breaches of confidentiality are depicted as 'harm', confidentiality is often presented as a virtue in and of itself, perhaps constitutive of integrity. Thus, for example, librarians "protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted" (ALA, 2008). Similarly, the Declaration of Helsinki states that "every precaution must be taken to protect the privacy of research subjects and the confidentiality of their personal information" (WMA, 2013).

The need for confidentiality increases with the use of electronic data. The authors of a 1973 report for the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare addressing the then nascent practice of electronic data management noted that "under current law, a person's privacy is poorly protected against arbitrary or abusive record-keeping practices" (Ware, et.al., 1973:xx). Government policy, they argued, should be designed to limit intrusiveness, to maximize fairness, and to create legitimate and enforceable expectations of confidentiality (Linowes, et.al.,1977: 14-15).

Confidentiality, expressed as privacy, is a core principle for data and information services and codes regulating those. For example, the Federal Trade Commission promotes principles that "are widely accepted as essential to ensuring that the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information are conducted fairly and in a manner consistent with consumer privacy interests." (Pitofsky, et.al., 1998:ii).

It should be noted that exceptions to confidentiality may be allowed, especially where required by law. For example, the British Columbia Teachers\x92 Federation code states explicitly that "It shall not be considered a breach of the Code of Ethics for a member to follow the legal requirements for reporting child protection issues" (BCTF, 2020). Similarly, in medical informatics, confidentiality can be compromised "by the legitimate, appropriate and relevant data-needs of a free, responsible and democratic society, and by the equal and competing rights of others" (IMIA, 2015).

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